印度-亚洲大陆的初始碰撞

doi:10.3969/j.issn.0253-4967.2016.03.022

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

印度-亚洲大陆碰撞形成了青藏高原，影响了中亚、东南亚、东亚直到西太平洋的构造变形，改变了从岩石圈地幔到大气圈的多个圈层状态，是研究青藏高原形成和演化的前提和基础，但是，至今对最初在何时、何地发生碰撞仍意见不一。文中以近10a来该项研究的成果为基础，通过一些问题的讨论，展现研究进展，突出存在矛盾，探讨下一步的研究重点。讨论的问题有：1）初始碰撞时亚洲南缘的古纬度是多少？2）大印度有多大？3）定日地区最高海相层的年龄有多大？4）55Ma BP前后的碰撞是陆-陆碰撞还是陆-弧碰撞？5）外喜马拉雅的岩浆活动能否厘定初始碰撞？6）最后归纳了2004年以来初始碰撞时限研究的一些结果。从近10a的研究结果看，印度-亚洲初始碰撞时限集中在K/E、E₁/E₂和E₂/E₃界线附近。与以前的结果相比，是在向更早和更晚扩展。文中认为，不同观点的争论对发现研究中存在的问题、促进研究发展有推动作用；提出未来的印度-亚洲碰撞研究，除了要面对和解决各种资料、论据的不确定性外，还要更精确地限定印度和亚洲在晚白垩世和古近纪期间的古地理位置，确定新特提斯洋内岛弧或微陆块在此期间的位置、大小，以及弧-陆碰撞与陆-陆碰撞在标志和效应等方面的差别，总之，要深入探索碰撞过程的复杂性。

关键词: 印度-亚洲大陆碰撞, 古地磁学, 大印度, 最高海相层位, 外喜马拉雅

Abstract:

It is widely accepted that the India-Eurasia continental collision has created the Tibetan plateau, affecting tectonic deformation from Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia to the West Pacific. This event has changed the states of many spheres of the Earth including from lithosphere to the atmosphere, thus is fundamental for research of motion and evolution of the Tibetan plateau. It remains, however, controversial when and where the initial collision between these two plates occurred. Based on the studies of the recent nearly 10 years, this paper attempts to review the advancements, existing important problems in this field, as well as the focused research subjects in the future. The specific issues discussed are:(1)What is the ancient latitudes of the southern margin of Asia when the initial collision began?(2)How big was Greater India?(3)What was the age of the uppermost marine strata in the Dingri area?(4)The collision before 55Ma was continent-continent collision or continent-arc collision? And(5)Can magma activity in the Trans-Himalaya determine the initial collision? Finally, this paper summarizes some studies on the timing of the initial collision, which were reported since 2004. These results suggest that the times are concentrated around K/E, E₁/E₂, and E₂/E₃, much earlier or later than that the precious work proposed. The author considers that the dispute among different points of views can help find existing problems and advance the study on this subject. It is also pointed out that in addition to uncertainties of various data and evidence, more efforts should be made to define precisely the ancient geographic positions of India and Asia, locations and sizes of island-arcs or micro continents in the Neo-Tethys ocean during late Cretaceous and Eogene times as well as differences in marks and effects between arc-continent and continent-continent collisions. In sum, the complexity during this collision process should be one of the focused issues to be deeply explored in the future.

Key words: India-Asia continental collision, paleomagnetism, Greater India, uppermost marine strata, Trans-Himalaya

中图分类号:

P311.2

赵俊猛, 杜品仁. 印度-亚洲大陆的初始碰撞[J]. 地震地质, 2016, 38(3): 783-796.

ZHAO Jun-meng, DU Pin-ren. ON THE INITIAL COLLISION BETWEEN THE INDIAN AND EURASIAN CONTINENTS[J]. SEISMOLOGY AND GEOLOGY, 2016, 38(3): 783-796.

参考文献

蔡福龙, 丁林, 张清海, 等. 2008. 雅鲁藏布江周缘前陆盆地物源分析及构造演化［J］. 岩石学报, 24(3):430-446.
CAI Fu-long, DING Lin, ZHANG Qing-hai, et al. 2008. Provenance and tectonic evolution of the Yalu-Zangbo peripheral foreland basin［J］. Acta Petrologica Sincia, 24(3):430-446(in Chinese).
丁林, 钟大赉. 2013. 印度与欧亚板块碰撞以来东喜马拉雅构造结的演化［J］. 地质科学, 48(2):317-333.
DING Lin, ZHONG Da-lai. 2013. The tectonic evolution of the eastern Himalaya syntaxis since the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates［J］. Chinese Journal of Geology, 48(2):317-333(in Chinese).
董国臣, 莫宣学, 赵志丹, 等. 2011. 冈底斯带西段那木如岩体始新世岩浆作用及构造意义［J］. 岩石学报, 27(7):1983-1992.
DONG Guo-chen, MO Xuan-xue, ZHAO Zhi-dan, et al. 2011. The Neocene magmatism from Namuru intrusion in western Gangdese, Tibet and its tectonic significance［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 27(7):1983-1992(in Chinese).
侯增谦, 莫宣学, 高永丰, 等. 2006a. 印度大陆与亚洲大陆早期碰撞过程与动力学模型:来自西藏冈底斯新生代火成岩证据［J］. 地质学报, 80(9):1233-1248.
HOU Zeng-qian, MO Xuan-xue, GAO Yong-feng, et al. 2006a. Early processes and tectonic model for the Indian-Asian continental collision:Evidence from the Cenozoic Gangdese igneous rocks in Tibet［J］. Acta Geologica Sinica, 80(9):1233-1248(in Chinese).
侯增谦, 赵志丹, 高永丰, 等. 2006b. 印度大陆板片前缘撕裂与分段俯冲:来自冈底斯新生代火山-岩浆作用证据［J］. 岩石学报, 22(4):761-774.
HOU Zeng-qian, ZHAO Zhi-dan, GAO Yong-feng, et al. 2006b. Tearing and dischronal subduction of the Indian continental slab:Evidence from Cenozoic Gangdese volcano-magmatic rocks in South Tibet［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 22(4):761-774(in Chinese).
黄宝春, 陈军山, 易治宇. 2010. 再论印度与亚洲大陆何时何地发生初始碰撞［J］. 地球物理学报, 53(9):2045-205.
HUANG Bao-chun, CHEN Jun-shan, YI Zhi-yu. 2010. Paleomagnetic discussion of when and where India and Asia initially collided［J］. Chinese J Geophys, 53(9):2045-2058(in Chinese).
纪伟强, 吴福元, 锺孙霖, 等. 2009. 西藏南部冈底斯岩基花岗岩时代与岩石成因［J］. 中国科学(D辑), 39(7):849-871. doi:10.1007/s11430-009-0131-y.
JI Wei-qiang, WU Fu-yuan, ZHONG Sun-lin, et al. 2009. Geochronology and petrogenesis of granite rocks in Gangdese batholith, southern Tibet［J］. Science in China(Ser D), 39(7):849-871(in Chinese).
李奋其, 刘伟, 张士贞, 等. 2012. 冈底斯东段古新世朱拉岩体LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年和岩石地球化学特征［J］. 地质通报, 31(9):1420-1434.
LI Fen-qi, LIU Wei, ZHANG Shi-zhen, et al. 2012. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating and geochemical characteristics of Zhula intrusion in eastern Gangdise, Tibet［J］. Geological Bulletin of China, 31(9):1420-1434(in Chinese).
李国彪, 万晓樵, 刘文灿, 等. 2004. 雅鲁藏布江缝合带南侧古近纪海相地层的发现及其构造意义［J］. 中国科学(D辑), 34(3):228-240.
LI Guo-biao, WAN Xiao-qiao, LIU Wen-can, et al. 2005. Discovery of Paleogene marine stratum along the southern side of Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone and its implications in tectonics［J］. Science in China(Ser D), 48(5):647-661.
李皓扬, 锺孙霖, 王彦斌, 等. 2007. 藏南林周盆地林子宗火山岩的时代、成因及其地质意义:锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素证据［J］. 岩石学报, 23(2):493-500.
LI Hao-yang, ZHONG Sun-lin, WANG Yun-bin, et al. 2007. Age, petrogenesis and geological significance of the Linzizong volcanic successions in the Linzhou Basin, southern Tibet:Evidence from zircon U-Pb dates and Hf isotopes［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 23(2):493-500(in Chinese).
李建国, 张一勇, 蔡华伟, 等. 2008. 西藏仲巴白垩纪-古近纪孢粉组合及其意义［J］. 地质学报, 82(5):584-595.
LI Jian-guo, ZHang Yi-yong, CAI Hua-wei, et al. 2008. Cretaceous and Paleogene palynological successions at Zhongba, Tibet and its significance［J］. Acta Geologica Sinica, 82(5):584-595(in Chinese).
李祥辉, 王成善, 胡修棉. 2001. 西藏最新非碳酸盐海相沉积及其对特提斯关闭的意义［J］. 地质学报, 75(3):314-321.
LI Xiang-hui, WANG Cheng-shan, HU Xiu-mian. 2001. Latest non-carbonate marine sediments in Tibet:Significance to closure of the Neo-Tethys sea［J］. Acta Geologica Sinica, 75(3):314-321(in Chinese).
梁银平, 张克信, 宋博文, 等. 2013. 青藏高原古新世构造岩相古地理［J］. 地质通报, 32(1):67-74.
LIANG Yin-ping, ZHANG Ke-xin, SONG Bo-wen, et al. 2013. Paleocene tectonic lithofacies paleogeography of the Tibetan plateau［J］. Geological Bulletin of China, 32(1):67-74(in Chinese).
梁银平, 朱杰, 次邛, 等. 2010. 青藏高原冈底斯带中部朱诺地区林子宗群火山岩锆石U-Pb年龄和地球化学特征［J］. 地球科学, 35(2):211-223.
LIANG Yin-ping, ZHU Jie, CI Qiang, et al. 2010. Zircon U-Pb ages and geochemistry of volcanic rock from Linzizong group in Zhunuo area in middle Gangdise belt, Tibet Plateau［J］. Earth Science, 35(2):211-223(in Chinese).
刘小汉, 琚宜太, 韦利杰, 等. 2009. 再论雅鲁藏布江缝合带构造模型［J］. 中国科学(D辑), 39(4):448-463.
LIU Xiao-hun, JU Yi-tai, WEI Li-jie, et al. 2009. A second discussion on structure model of the Yarlungzangbo suture zone［J］. Science in China(Ser D), 39(4):448-463(in Chinese).
莫宣学. 2011. 岩浆作用与青藏高原演化［J］. 高校地质学报, 17(3):351-267.
MO Xuan-xue. 2011. Magmatism and evolution of the Tibetan plateau［J］. Geological Journal of China Universities, 17:351-367(in Chinese).
莫宣学, 董国臣, 赵志丹, 等. 2005. 西藏冈底斯带花岗岩的时空分布特征及地壳生长演化信息［J］. 高校地质学报, 11(3):281-290.
MO Xuan-xue, DONG Guo-chen, ZHAO Zhi-dan, et al. 2005. Spatial and temporal distribution and characteristics of granitoids in the Gangdese, Tibet and implication for crustal growth and evolution［J］. Geological Journal of China Universities, 11(3):281-290(in Chinese).
莫宣学, 潘桂棠. 2006. 从特提斯到青藏高原形成:构造-岩浆事件的约束［J］. 地学前缘, 13(6):43-51.
MO Xuan-xue, PAN Gui-tang. 2006. From the Tethys to the formation of the Tibetan plateau:Constrained by tectonomagmatic events［J］. Earth Science Frontiers, 13(6):43-51(in Chinese).
莫宣学, 赵志丹, 邓晋福, 等. 2003. 印度-亚洲大陆主碰撞过程的火山作用响应［J］. 地学前缘, 10(3):135-148.
MO Xuan-xue, ZHAO Zhi-dan, DENG Jin-fu, et al. 2003. Response of volcanism to the India-Asia collision［J］. Earth Sci Frontiers, 10(3):135-148(in Chinese).
莫宣学, 赵志丹, 周肃, 等. 2000. 印度-亚洲大陆碰撞的时限［J］. 地质通报, 26(10):1240-1244.
MO Xuan-xue, ZHAO Zhi-dan, ZHOU Su, et al. 2000. On the timing of India-Asia continental collision［J］. Geological Bulletin of China, 26(10):1240-1244(in Chinese).
莫宣学, 赵志丹, 朱弟成, 等. 2009. 西藏南部印度-亚洲碰撞带岩石圈:岩石学-地球化学约束［J］. 地球科学, 34(1):17-27.
MO Xuan-xue, ZHAO Zhi-dan, ZHU Di-cheng, et al. 2009. On the lithosphere of Indo-Asia collision zone in southern Tibet:Petrological and geochemical constraints［J］. Earth Science, 34(1):17-27(in Chinese).
万天丰. 2011. 论碰撞作用时间［J］. 地学前缘, 18(3):48-56.
WAN Tian-feng. 2011. A discussion on the collision time［J］. Earth Science Frontiers, 18(3):48-56(in Chinese).
王成善, 李祥辉, 胡修棉. 2003. 再论印度-亚洲大陆碰撞的启动时间［J］. 地质学报, 77(1):16-24.
WANG Cheng-shan, LI Xiang-hui, HU Xiu-mian. 2003. Age of initial collision of India with Asia:Review and constraints from sediments in southern Tibet［J］. Acta Geologica Sinica, 77(1):16-24(in Chinese).
魏玉帅, 王成善, 李祥辉, 等. 2006. 藏南古近纪甲查拉组物源分析及其对印度-欧亚大陆碰撞启动时间的约束［J］. 矿物岩石, 26(3):46-55.
WEI Yu-shuai, WANG Cheng-shan, LI Xiang-hui, et al. 2006. Provenance analysis of Paleogene Gyachala formation in southern Tibet:Implication for the initiation of collision between India and Asia［J］. J Mineral Petrol, 26(3):46-55(in Chinese).
吴福元, 黄宝春, 叶凯, 等. 2008. 青藏高原造山带的垮塌与高原隆升［J］. 岩石学报, 24(1):1-30.
WU Fu-yuan, HUANG Bao-chun, YE Kai, et al. 2008. Collapsed Himalaya-Tibetan orogen and the rising Tibetan plateau［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 24(1):1-30(in Chinese).
于枫, 李志国, 赵志丹, 等. 2010. 西藏冈底斯带中西部措麦地区林子宗火山岩地球化学特征及意义［J］. 岩石学报, 26(7):2217-2225.
YU Feng, LI Zhi-guo, ZHAO Zhi-dan, et al. 2010. Geochemistry and implication of the Linzizong volcanic succession in Cuomai area, central western Gangdese, Tibet［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 26(7):2217-2225(in Chinese).
张泽明, 董昕, 贺振宇, 等. 2013. 喜马拉雅造山带的高压超高压变质作用与印度-亚洲大陆碰撞［J］. 岩石学报, 29(5):1713-1726.
ZHANG Ze-ming, DONG Xin, HE Zhen-yu, et al. 2013. Indian and Asian continental collision viewed from HP and UHP metamorphism of the Himalayan orogen［J］. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 29(5):1713-1726(in Chinese).
周肃, 莫宣学, 董国臣, 等. 2004. 西藏林周盆地林子宗火山岩 ⁰⁴Ar/³⁹Ar年代格架［J］. 科学通报, 49(20):2095-2103.
ZHOU Su, MO Xuan-xue, DONG Guo-chen, et al. 2004. Ar⁴⁰/Ar³⁹ geochronology of Cenozoic Linzizong volcanic rocks from Linzhou Basin, Tibet, China, and their geological implications［J］. Chinese Sci Bull, 49(18):1970-1979.
朱弟成, 潘桂棠, 莫宣学, 等. 2004. 印度大陆和欧亚大陆的碰撞时代［J］. 地球科学进展, 19(4):564-571.
ZHU Di-cheng, PAN Gui-tang, MO Xuan-xue, et al. 2004. The age of collision between India and Eurasia［J］. Advances in Earth Science, 19(4):564-571(in Chinese).
Abrajevitch A V, Ali J R, Aitchison J C, et al. 2005. Neotethys and the India-Asia collision:Insights from a palaeomagnetic study of the Dazhuqu ophiolite, southern Tibet［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 233:87-102.
Aitchison J C, Ali J R, Davis A M. 2007. When and where did India and Asia collide?［J］. J Geophys Res, 112:B05423.
Aitchison J C, Ali J R, Davis A M. 2008. Reply to comment by Eduardo Garzanti on "When and where did India and Asia collide?"［J］. J Geophys Res, 113:B04412. doi:10. 1029/2007JB005431.
Aitchison J C, Davis A M. 2004. Evidence for the multiphase nature of the India-Asia collision from the Yarlung Tsangpo suture zone, Tibet［M］//Malpas J G et al.(eds). Aspects of the Tectonic Evolution of China. Geological Society London Geol Soc Spec Publ, 226:217-233.
Aitchison J C, Davis A M, Badengzhu, et al. 2002. New constraints on the India-Asia collision:The lower Miocene Gangrinboche conglomerates, Yarlung Tsangpo suture zone, SE Tibet［J］. J Asian Earth Sci, 21:251-265. doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00037-8.
Ali J R, Aitchison J C. 2005. Greater India［J］. Earth-Science Rev, 72:169-188.
Ali J R, Aitchison J C. 2008. Gondwana to Asia Plate tectonics, paleogeography and the biological connectivity of the Indian sub-continent from the Middle Jurassic through latest Eocene(166-35Ma)［J］. Earth-Science Rev, 88:145-166.
Besse J, Courtillot V. 2002. Apparent and true polar wander and the geometry of the geomagnetic field over the last 200 Myr［J］. J Geophys Res, 107(B11):1-31.
Cai F L, Ding L, Yue Y H. 2011. Provenance analysis of upper Cretaceous strata in the Tethys Himalaya, southern Tibet:Implications for timing of India-Asia collision［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 35:195-206.
Chen J S, Huang B C, Sun L S. 2010. New constraints to the onset of the India-Asia collision:Paleomagnetic reconnaissance on the Linzizong Group in the Lhasa Block, China［J］. Tectonophysics, 489(1-4):189-209.
Chu M F, Chung S L, O'Reilly S Y, et al. 2011. India's hidden inputs to Tibetan orogeny revealed by Hf isotopes of Transhimalayan zircons and host rocks［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 307:479-486.
Cogné J-P, Besse J, Chen Y, et al. 2013. A new Late Cretaceous to present APWP for Asia and its implications for paleomagnetic shallow inclinations in Central Asia and Cenozoic Eurasian plate deformation［J］. Geophys J Int, 192:1000-1024.
Davis A M, Aitchison J C, Luo H, et al. 2002. Paleogene island arc collision-related conglomerates, Yarlung-Tsangpo suture zone, Tibet［J］. Sediment Geol, 150:247-273. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(01)00199-3.
Decelles P G, Kapp P, Gehrels G E, et al. 2014. Paleocene-Eocene foreland basin evolution in the Himalaya of southern Tibet and Nepal:Implications for the age of initial India-Asia collision［J］. Tectonics, 33:824-849.
Ding L, Kapp P, Wan X. 2005. Paleocene-Eocene record of ophiolite obduction and initial India-Asia collision, south central Tibet［J］. Tectonics, 24(3):1-18.
Dupont-Nivet G, Lippert P C, Van Hinsbergen D J J, et al. 2010. Palaeolatitude and age of the Indo-Asia collision:Palaeomagnetic constraints［J］. Geophys J Int, 182:1189-1198.
Garzanti E. 2008. Comment on when and where did India and Asia collide［J］. J Geophys Res, 113:B0441 1. doi:10. 1029/2007JB005276.
Green O R, Corfield R M. 2008. Cretaceous-Tertiary cartonate platform evolution and the age of the India-Asia collision along the Ladakh Himalaya(Northwest India)［J］. J Geol, 116:331-353.
Guillot S, Mahéo G, de Sigoyer J, et al. 2008. Tethyan and Indian subduction viewed from the Himalayan high-to ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks［J］. Tectonophysics, 451:225-241.
Huang W, Dupont-Nivet G, Lippert P C, et al. 2013. Inclination shallowing in Eocene Linzizong sedimentary rocks from southern Tibet:Correction, possible causes and implications for reconstructing the India-Asia collision［J］. Geophys J Int, 194:1390-1411.
Hu X, Sinclair H D, Wang J G, et al. 2012. Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene stratigraphic and basin evolution in the Zhepure Mountain of southern Tibet:Implications for the timing of India-Asia initial collision［J］. Basin Research, 24(5):520-543.
Lee T Y, Lawver L A. 1995. Cenozoic plate reconstruction of Southeast Asia［J］. Tectonophysics, 251:85-138.
Liebke U, Appel E, Ding L, et al. 2010. Position of the Lhasa terrane prior to India-Asia collision derived from palaeomagnetic inclinations of 53Ma old dykes of the Linzhou Basin:Constraints on the age of collision and post-collisional shortening within the Tibetan plateau［J］. Geophys J Int, 182:1199-1215.
Liebke U, Appel E, Ding L, et al. 2013. Age constraints on the India-Asia collision derived from secondary remanences of Tethyan Himalayan sediments from the Tingri area［J］. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 62:329-340.
Molnar P, Stock J. 2009. Slowing of India's convergence with Eurasia since 20Ma and its implications for Tibetan mantle dynamics［J］. Tectonics, 28:TC3001. doi:10.1029/2008TC002271.
Müller R, Sdrolias M, Gaina C, et al. 2008. Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust［J］. Geochem Geophys Geosyst, 9:Q04006. doi:10.1029/2007GC001743.
Najman Y, Appel E, Boudagher-Fadel M, et al. 2010. Timing of India-Asia collision:Geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints［J］. J Geophys Res, 115:531-554.
Patzelt A, Li H, Wang J, et al. 1996. Palaeomagnetism of Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments from southern Tibet:Evidence for the extent of the northern margin of India prior to the collision with Eurasia［J］. Tectonophysics, 259:259-284.
Rehman H R, Seno T, Yamamoto H, et al. 2011. Timing of collision of the Kohistan-Ladakh Arc with India and Asia:Debate［J］. Island Arc, 20:308-328.
Rowley D B. 1996. Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia:A review of stratigraphic data［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 145:1-13.
Rowley D B. 1998. Minimum age of initiation of collision between India and Asia［J］. The Journal of Geology, 16:229-235.
Searle M P, Cooper D W J, Rex A J. 1988. Collision tectonics of the Ladakh-Zanskar Himalaya［J］. Philos Trans R Soc London, Ser A, 326:117-150. doi:10.1098/rsta.1988.008 2.
Searle M P, Windley B F, Coward M P, et al. 1987. The closing of Tethys and the tectonics of the Himalaya［J］. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 98(6):678-701.
St-Onge M R, Rayner N, Searle M P. 2010. Zircon age determinations for the Ladakh batholith at Chumathang(northwest India):Implications for the age of the India-Asia collision in the Ladakh Himalaya［J］. Tectonophysics, 495:171-183.
Sun Z, Jiang W, Li H, et al. 2010. New paleomagnetic results of Paleocene volcanic rocks from the Lhasa block:Tectonic implications for the collision of India and Asia［J］. Tectonophysics, 490:257-266.
Sun Z, Pei J, Li H, et al. 2012. Palaeomagnetism of late Cretaceous sediments from southern Tibet:Evidence for the consistent palaeolatitudes of the southern margin of Eurasia prior to the collision with India［J］. Gondwana Res, 21:53-63.
Tan X, Gilder S, Kodama K P, et al. 2010. New paleomagnetic results from the Lhasa block:Revised estimation of latitudinal shortening across Tibet and implications for dating the India-Asia collision［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 293:396-404.
Tong Y B, Yang Z Y, Zheng I D, et al. 2008. Early Paleocene paleomagnetic results from southern Tibet, and tectonic implications［J］. International Geology Review, 50:546-562.
Torsvik T H, Müller R D, Van der Voo R, et al. 2008. Global plate motion frames:Toward a unified model［J］. Rev Geophys, 46:RG3004. doi:10.1029/2007RG000227.
Van der Voo R, Spakman W, Bijwaard H. 1999. Tethyan subducted slabs under India［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 171:7-20.
Van Hinsbergen D J J, Lippert P C, Dupont-Nivet G. 2012. Greater India Basin hypothesis and a two-stage Cenozoic collision between India and Asia［J］. PNAS, 109(20):7659-7664.
Van Hinsbergen D J J, Steinberger B, Doubrovine P V, et al. 2011. Acceleration and deceleration of India-Asia convergence since the Cretaceous:Roles of mantle plumes and continental collision［J］. J Geophys Res, 116:B06101. doi:10.1029/2010JB008051.
Wang C, Li X, Hu X, et al. 2002. Latest marine horizon north of Qomolangma(Mt Everest):Implications for closure of Tethys seaway and collision tectonics［J］. Terra Nova, 14:114-120.
Wu F Y, Ji W Q, Wang J G, et al. 2014. Zircon U-Pb and Hf isotopic constraints on the onset time of India-Asia collision［J］. Amer J Sci, 314:548-579. doi:10.2475/02.2014.04.
Yi Z, Huang B, Chen J, et al. 2011. Paleomagnetism of early Paleogene marine sediments in southern Tibet, China:Implications to onset of the India-Asia collision and size of Greater India［J］. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 39:153-165.
Yin A. 2010. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of Asia:A preliminary synthesis［J］. Tectonophysics, 488:293-325.
Yin A, Harrison T M. 2000. Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen［J］. Ann Rev Earth Planet Sci, 28:211-280.
Zahirovic S, Müller R D, Seton M, et al. 2012. Insights on the kinematics of the India-Eurasia collision from global geodynamic models［J］. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 13(4):10.1029/2011GC003883.
Zhu B, Kidd W S F, Rowley D B, et al. 2005. Age of initiation of the India-Asia collision in the east-central Himalaya［J］. The Journal of Geology, 113:265-285.